Bioinspired microstructures through decellularization of plants for tissue engineering applications

In nature, various patterns such as branches, stripes, spirals, and hexagons exist in biological and natural systems, from nano- to macro-scale. These hierarchical structures spontaneously emerge through the self-organization of an ordered structure from a disordered state. Inspired by nature, functional biomaterials are fabricated and utilized in tissue engineering with the implementation of different strategies. Among them, the decellularization of plant tissues envisions the manipulation of decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) to recapitulate diverse tissues, including bone, neuro, cardiovascular, and vasculature. Decellularized plants have become favorable scaffolds for tissue engineering. Here, nanofibrous microarchitectures can be retained, while liberated from reactive cellular material, nuclear and cytoplasmic components triggering immune responses. However, employing such structures in tissue engineering applications still requires the improvement of both functionalization and biofabrication strategies, aiming to enhance biocompatibility, cell adhesion, and cellular viability. Recent technological advances have given rise to the availability of both immersion and agitation and gravity-driven processes for decellularization, along with methods for assembling multiscale hierarchical structures. Herein, we discuss decellularization approaches for plant tissues, as well as the recellularization of such acellular matrices. Then, recent advances in plant-based constructs as bioinspired materials for tissue engineering applications are discussed. Ultimately, current challenges and limitations are presented, and future developments for cutting-edge research are speculated.